Severan dynastyCommodus was killed by a conspiracy involving Quintus Aemilius Laetusand his wife Marcia in late 192 AD. The following year is known as theYear of the Five Emperors. Pertinax, Didius Julianus, Pescennius Niger,Clodius Albinus and Septimius Severus fought for the imperial dignity. After many battles against the other generals, Severus established himself as the new emperor. He and his successors governed with the legions' support – and they paid money for this support. The changes on coinage and military expenditures were the root of the financial crisis that marked the Crisis of the 3rd century.Septimius SeverusSeverus was enthroned after invading Rome and having Didius Julianuskilled. His two other rivals,Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus, were both were hailed as Imperator. Severus quickly subdued Niger inByzantium and promised to Albinus the title of Caesar (which meant he would be a co-emperor).[113] However, Severus betrayed Albinus by blaming him on a plot against his life. Severus marched to Gaul and defeated Albinus. For these acts, Machiavellisaid that Severus was "a ferocious lion and a clever fox"[114] Severus attempted to revive totalitarianism and in an address to people and the Senate, he praised the severity and cruelty of Marius and Sulla, which worried the senators.[115] When Parthia invaded Roman territory, Severus waged war against that country. He seized the cities of Nisibis, Babylon andSeleucia. Reaching Ctesiphon, the Parthian capital, he ordered a great plunder and his army slew and captured many people. Albeit this military success, he failed in invading Hatra, a rich Arabian city. Severus killed his legate, for the latter was gaining respect from the legions; and his soldiers were hit by famine. After this disastrous campaign, he withdrew.[116] Severus also intended to vanquish the whole of Britain. In order to achieve this, he waged war against the Caledonians. After many casualties in the army due to the terrain and the barbarians' ambushes, Severus went himself to the field. However, he became ill and died in 211 AD.From Caracalla to Alexander SeverusUpon the death of Severus, his sons Caracalla and Geta were made emperors. Caracalla got rid of his brother in that same year. Like his father, Caracalla was a warlike man. He continued Severus' policy, and gained respect from the legions. Caracalla was a cruel man, and ordered several slayings during his reign. He ordered the death of people of his own circle, like his tutor, Cilo, and a friend of his father,Papinian. Knowing that the citizens of Alexandria disliked him and were speaking ill of his character, he slew almost the entire population of the city. Arriving there, he served a banquet for the notable citizens. After that, his soldiers killed all the guests, and he marched into the city with the army, slaying most of Alexandria's people.[117][118] In 212, he issued the Edict of Caracalla, giving full Roman citizenship to all free men living in the Empire. Caracalla was murdered by one of his soldiers during a campaign in Parthia, in 217 AD. The Praetorian prefect Macrinus, who ordered Caracalla's murder, assumed power. His brief reign ended in 218, when the youngsterElagabalus, a relative of the Severi, gained support from the legionaries and fought against Macrinus. Elagabalus was an incompetent and lascivious ruler,[119] who was well known for extreme extravagance.Cassius Dio, Herodian and the Historia Augusta have many accounts about his extravagance. Elagabalus was succeeded by his cousin Alexander Severus. Alexander waged war against many foes, like the revitalized Persia and German peoples who invaded Gaul. His losses made the soldiers dissatisfied with the emperor, and some of them killed him during his German campaign, in 235 AD.[120]Crisis of the 3rd centuryA disastrous scenario emerged after the death ofAlexander Severus: the Roman state was plagued by civil wars, externalinvasions, political chaos, pandemics andeconomic depression.[121][122]The old Roman values had fallen, and Mithraism and Christianity had begun to spread through the populace. Emperors were no longer men linked with nobility; they usually were born in lower-classes of distant parts of the Empire. These men rose to prominence through military ranks, and became emperors through civil wars. There were 26 emperors in a 49-year period, a signal of political instability. Maximinus Thrax was the first ruler of that time, governing for just three years. Others ruled just for a few months, like Gordian I, Gordian II, Balbinus and Hostilian. The population and the frontiers were abandoned, since the emperors were mostly concerned with defeating rivals and establishing their power. The economy also suffered during that epoch. The massive military expenditures from the Severi caused a devaluation of Roman coins.Hyperinflation came at this time as well. The Plague of Cyprian broke out in 250 and killed a huge portion of the population.[123] In 260 AD, the provinces of Syria Palaestina, Asia Minor and Egyptseparated from the rest of the Roman state to form the Palmyrene Empire, ruled by Queen Zenobia and centered on Palmyra. In that same year the Gallic Empire was created by Postumus, retaining Britain andGaul.[124] These countries separated from Rome after the capture of emperor Valerian, who was the first Roman ruler to be captured by enemies; Valerian was captured and executed by the Sassanids of Persia– a humiliating fact for the Romans.[123] The crisis began to recede during the reigns of Claudius Gothicus(268–270), who defeated the Goths invaders, and Aurelian (271–275), who reconquered both Gallic and Palmyrene Empire[125][126] During the reign of Diocletian, a more competent ruler, the crisis was overcome.Main article: Roman Empire In 27 BC, Octavian was the sole Roman leader. His leadership brought the zenith of the Roman civilization, that lasted for two centuries. In that year, he took the name Augustus. That event is usually taken by historians as the beginning of Roman Empire – although Rome was an "imperial" state since 146 BC, when Carthage was razed by Scipio Aemilianus and Greece was conquered by Lucius Mummius. Officially, the government was republican, but Augustus assumed absolute powers.[64][65] Julio-Claudian dynastyThe Julio-Claudian dynasty was established by Augustus. The emperors of this dynasty were: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. The dynasty is so-called due to the gens Julia, family of Augustus, and thegens Claudia, family of Tiberius. The Julio-Claudians started the destruction of republican values, but on the other hand, they boosted Rome's status as the central power in the world.[66] While Caligula and Nero are usually remembered as mad or mean emperors in popular culture, Augustus and Claudius were great emperors in politics and military. This dynasty instituted imperial tradition in Rome[67] and frustrated any attempt to reestablish Republic.[68]AugustusAugustus gathered almost all the republican powers under his official title, princeps: he had powers of consul, princeps senatus, aedile,censor and tribune – including tribunician sacrosanctity.[69] This was the base of an emperor's power. Augustus also styled himself asImperator Gaius Julius Caesar divi filius, "Commander Gaius Julius Caesar, son of the deified one". With this title he not only boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, but the use of Imperatorsignified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory. He also diminished the Senatorial class influence in politics by boosting the equestrian class. The senators lost their right to rule certain provinces, like Egypt; since the governor of that province was directly nominated by the emperor. The creation of the Praetorian Guardand his reforms in military, setting the number of legions in 28, ensured his total control over the army.[70] Compared with Second Triumvirate's epoch, Augustus' reign as princeps was very peaceful. This peace and richness (that was granted by the agrarian province of Egypt)[71] led people and nobles of Rome to support Augustus and increased his strength in political affairs.[72] In military activity, Augustus was absent at battles. His generals were responsible for the field command; gaining much respect from the populace and the legions, such as Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Nero Claudius Drusus andGermanicus. Augustus intended to extend the Roman Empire to the whole known world, and in his reign, Rome had conquered CantabriaAquitania, Raetia, Dalmatia, Illyricum and Pannonia.[73] Under Augustus's reign, Roman literature grew steadily in the Golden Age of Latin Literature. Poets like Virgil, Horace, Ovid and Rufusdeveloped a rich literature, and were close friends of Augustus. Along with Maecenas, he stimulated patriotic poems, as Virgil's epic Aeneidand also historiographical works, like those of&n |
About us|Jobs|Help|Disclaimer|Advertising services|Contact us|Sign in|Website map|Search|
GMT+8, 2015-9-11 20:58 , Processed in 0.125129 second(s), 16 queries .
