|
The fleet comprised more men than the whole male population of any port city from Guangzhou to Mombasa at the time.[180] Each treasure ship were crewed by about 500 men (according to Mills)[181] or at least 600 men (accorrding to Finlay).[182] The high-ranking officers—Admiral Zheng He and his associates—were from the eunuch establishment.[183] The majority of the crew came from the Ming military.[183] They were mostly recruited from Fujian.[160][184] There were seven Grand Directors (taijian)—who served as the ambassadors and commanders of the fleet—followed by 10 Junior Directors (shaojian).[185][186] Admiral Zheng He was one of the Grand Directors.[185] Including the 53 other eunuchs,[186] there was a grand total of 70 eunuchs in command of the treasure fleet.[185] This was followed by 2 brigadiers (du zhihuishi), 93 captains (zhihuishi), 104 lieutenants (qianhu), and 103 sub-lieutenants (bohu).[n][185][186] There were 180 medical personnel, a bureau director[o] (from the Ministry of Finance), two secretaries, two protocol officers[p] (from the Court of State Ceremonial), an astrological officer, and four astrologers.[186][187] The personnel also had guard judges (wei zhenfu) and battalion judges (suo zhenfu).[185] The remaining personnel included petty officers (qixiao or quanxiao), brave corps (yongshi), power corps[q] (lishi), military soldiers (referred as guanjun, "official soldiers", or qijun, "flag soldiers"), supernumeraries (yuding), boatsman (minshao), buyers (maiban), and clerks (shushou).[187][188] Zhu Yunming's Xia Xiyang records the following personnel: officers and petty officers (guanxiao), soldiers (qijun), mess leaders (huozhang), helmsman (tuogong), anchormen (bandingshou), interpreters (tongshi), business managers (banshi), accountants (susuanshi), doctors (yishi), anchor mechanics (tiemiao), caulkers (munian), sailmakers (dacai), sailors (shuishou), and boatmen (minshaoren).[187][188] The Liujiagang inscriptions records Zheng He and Wang Jinghong as the principal envoys.[189] It also records Zhu Liang, Zhou Man, Hong Bao, Yang Zhen, and Zhang Da as deputy envoys.[189] The Changle inscription repeats this, but adds Li Xing and Wu Zhong as deputy envoys.[189] All the recorded envoys are noted to have carried the rank of Grand Director in both inscriptions, except Zhang Da who was noted with the rank of Senior Assistant Director in the Liujiagang inscription and the rank of Grand Director in the Changle inscription.[189] Additionally, the Changle inscription mentions Zhu Zhen and Wang Heng as the brigadiers.[184][189] These people and unnamed "others" are mentioned on the respective inscriptions as those who have composed it.[189] The Changle inscription also mentions that the Daoist priest Yang Yichu begged to erect the respective stele.[189] Cakra Donya bell is a gift from Zheng He to Semudera in Aceh, Sumatra The two inscriptions explicitly state that Admiral Zheng He had commanded several tens of thousands of government soldiers and over one hundred oceangoing ships for all their voyages.[190][191] Over the course of 1403, Fujian, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, and Huguang's provincial governments and Nanjing, Suzhou, and other cities' military garrisons were ordered to begin construction of ships.[11] The Taizong Shilu contains 24 short entries for the imperial orders for ship building from 1403 to 1419.[192] The given figures point to at least 2868 ships being build under imperials orders throughout these years in Ming China.[192] For the first voyage, the fleet had a personnel of 27,800[18] or 27,870 men.[14][20] The treasure fleet comprised a total of 317 ships for this voyage.[12][14][20] It included 62 treasure ships.[14][18] It may also be 63 treasure ships.[28] The Mingshi states that the fleet had 62 treasure ships and a crew of 27,800 for the first voyage.[28] Tan Qian's Guoque records 63 treasure ships and a crew of 27,870 for the first voyage.[28] The Zuiweilu records a personnel of 37,000, but this is probably an error.[28] Yan Congjian's Shuyu Shilu records an imperial order for the construction of 250 ships specifically for the voyages to the Western Ocean.[28] This actually refers to two seperate imperial orders—as recorded in the Taizong Shilu—both to the Nanjing's capital guards for 200 ships (haiyunchchuan, lit. "seagoing transport ships") on 4 September 1403 and for 50 ships (haichuan, lit. "seagoing ships") on 1 March 1404.[193] However, the Taizong Shilu did not record the purpose for which these 250 ships were constructed.[194] It also records a 2 March 1404 imperial order for Fujian to construct 5 ships (haichuan) and states that these five ships were for the voyages to the Western Ocean.[28] These 255 ships plus the 62 treasure ships adds up to the total of 317 ships.[28] The figure of 317 ships[r] for the first voyage is the general consensus of most scholars.[28] For the second voyage, it is thought that the treasure fleet comprised 249 ships.[36][164] On 5 October 1407, as the Taizong Shilu records, Wang Hao was ordered to supervise the conversion of 249 ships in preparation for embassies to the countries at the Western Ocean.[195] This was close to the date when the second voyage was ordered, thus the fleet likely comprised these 249 ships for the second voyage.[194] The number of treasure ships[38] or personnel[36][38] is not known. For the third voyage, Fei Xin's Xingcha Shenglan recorded that the fleet had 48 haibo (lit. "ocean traders") and a crew of over 27,000.[196] Dreyer (2007) states that Fei Xin was probably referring to the treasure ships with haibo.[197] Yan Congjian's Shuyu Zhouzilu and Lu Rong's Shuyuan Zaji used the term "treasure ship" instead when they mentioned the 48 ships for this voyage.[196] Coincidently, the Taizong Shilu recorded the 14 February 1408 imperial order for the construction of 48 treasure ships to the Ministry of Works at Nanjing.[196] These were possibly the 48 treasure ships for the third voyage.[196] Dreyer (2007) states that the treasure fleet likely had an undisclosed array of support ships besides the 48 treasure ships.[196] Ma Huan's Yingya Shenglan recorded 63 treasure ships for the fourth voyage.[190] These were probably accompanied by support ships.[190] The fleet was crewed by 28,560 men[59][62] or 27670 men.[65] Fei Xin recorded a personnel of 27,670 for this voyage, but another source recorded 28,560.[190] There's no record for the number of ships or personnel for the fifth voyage.[71][190] On 2 October 1419, an order was issued for the construction of 41 treasure ships from an undisclosed shipbuilder.[198] It is possible that Admiral Zheng He made use of these ships for the sixth voyage.[84] Most scholars have concluded that these were likely used for the sixth voyage,[190] but many other treasure ships had already been constructed or were in construction by that time.[199] There's no specific figure for the ships or personnel of the sixth voyage.[190] The treasure fleet probably made use of several dozen of the treasure ships which was accompanied by half a dozen support vessels each.[84] For the seventh voyage, the Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions speak of over a hundred large ships (jubo, lit "great trading vessels").[190] This probably included most of the remaining treasure ships according to Dreyer (2007).[190] The treasure ships were likely accompanied by support ships.[190] The treasure fleet had 27,550 men as personnel for the voyage.[190] Military affairs Before the voyages, there was turmoil around the seas near China.[200] Palembang had become the center of illicit trade under the control of renegades from Guangzhou, the southern Vietnamese coast was under control of bandit slave traders, the city-states in Indonesia and the Malay Peninsula were plunged into chaos as their principal income from the Chinese commerce had halted during the Hongwu reign, and the Chinese coast was frequently disturbed by raids from the Japanese wokou (lit. "dwarf pirates").[200] The treasure fleet had a large number of warships to protect their precious cargo and to secure the maritime routes.[200] The voyages established a substantial Chinese military presence around the South China Sea and trading cities in southern India.[40] Even though Admiral Zheng He sailed through the oceans with a military force larger and stronger than any local power, there is no written evidence in historical sources that there was any attempt that they forcibly tried to control the maritime trade—rather than through exploration and promotion of trade—in the regions of the South China Sea and Indian Ocean.[48] Nevertheless, Dreyer (2007) states that it must have been a "terrifying apparition" when the large Chinese fleet came within visible reach before the coastline of a foreign country, bringing any state into submission by the sole sight of it alone.[201] From the fourth voyage onwards, the treasure fleet ventured further than their usual end-destination of Calicut to lands beyond, where there would be less direct hostilities.[202] The fleet engaged and defeated Chen Zuyi's pirate fleet in Palembang, Alakeshvara's forces in Ceylon, and Sekandar's forces in Semudera, bringing security and stability of the maritime routes via Chinese control.[203] These battles served as a reminder of the tremendous power of Ming China to the countries along the maritime routes.[159] Chen Zuyi (of Palembang), Alakeshvara (of Ceylon), and Sekandar (of Semudera) were viewed as hostile threats in their regions.[159] On 29 October 1407, the Yongle Emperor ordered rewards for the personnel who had fought at Palembang.[204] On 13 September 1411, the emperor granted both rewards and promotion for the Sinhalese confrontation after the joint recommendation of the Ministry of War and the Ministry of Rites.[204] On 8 August 1419, the emperor ordered the Ministry of Rites to grant monetary rewards to the fleet's personnel, because it was considered appropriate to reward them for sailing long distances and traveling to many foreign countries over many years.[204] Diplomacy and commerce Main article: Diplomacy and commerce during the treasure voyages Porcelain wares, such as those similar to these Yongle-era porcelain flasks from Jingdezhen, were often presented as trade goods during the expeditions. (British Museum) The treasure ships had an enormous cargo of various products.[205] Admiral Zheng returned to China with many kinds of tribute goods, such as silver, spices, sandalwood, precious stones, ivory, ebony, camphor, tin, deer hides, coral, kingfisher feathers, tortoise shells, gums and resin, rhinoceros horn, sapanwood and safflower (for dyes and drugs), Indian cotton cloth, and ambergris (for perfume).[205] They even brought back exotic animals, such as ostriches, elephants, and giraffes.[205] There was so much cobalt oxide from Persia that the porcelain center Jingdezhen had a plentiful supply for decades after the voyages.[205] The fleet also returned with such a large amount of black pepper that the once-costly luxury became a common commodity in Chinese society.[205] It has been said that there was sometimes so many Chinese goods unloaded into a single foreign port that it could take about three months to price everything.[9] The treasure voyages resulted in a flourishing Ming economy,[206] while boosting the lucrative maritime commerce to an all-time high.[207] Imperial proclamations were issued to the foreign kings, which meant that they could either submit and be bestowed with rewards or refuse and be pacified under the threat of an overwhelming military force.[132][208] Foreign kings had to reaffirm their recognition of the Chinese emperor's superior status by presenting tribute.[209] Many countries were enrolled as tributaries.[141] The treasure fleet conducted the transport of the many foreign envoys to China and back, but some envoys traveled independently.[210] Those rulers who submitted received political protection and material rewards.[181] Geography and society The Yongle Emperor commissioned Shen Du to make this painting of the tribute giraffe, presented by Bengal on 20 September 1414 (Philadelphia Museum of Art).[211] During the onset of their voyages, the treasure fleet would embark from the Longjiang shipyard, north-west of Nanjing.[212] They would then sail down the Yangtze River to Liujiagang.[212] Once there, Admiral Zheng He would organize his fleet and make sacrifices to Tianfei.[212] Over the course of the following four to eight weeks, the fleet would gradually proceed to Taiping anchorage in Changle, Fujian.[212] There, the fleet would wait for the favorable northeast monsoon of winter[s] before leaving the Fujian coast.[22][213][212] They would reach the sea through the Wuhumen.[22] For the voyages, the fleet always visited the port Qui Nhon (in Champa) first.[21] During the first three voyages from 1405 to 1411, the fleet followed the same basic maritime route: from Fujian to the first call in Champa, across the South China Sea to Java and Sumatra, up the Strait of Malacca to northern Sumatra for assembly of the fleet, across the Indian Ocean to Ceylon, then along the Malabar Coast to Calicut.[214] It had not yet ventured further than Calicut on India's southwestern coast during these voyages.[202] During the fourth voyage, the route was extended to Hormuz.[215] During the fifth voyage, the fleet proceeded further to other destinations at the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.[215] During the sixth voyage, the treasure fleet sailed up to Calicut, where several detached squadrons proceeded to further destinations at the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.[215] During the seventh voyage, the treasure fleet followed the route up to Hormuz, while detached squadrons traveled to the other far-lying destinations at the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.[215] The treasure fleet sailed the equatorial and subtropical waters of the South China Sea and Indian Ocean, where they were dependent on the circumstances of the annual cycle of monsoon winds.[216] During all the voyages, the fleet would sail westward across the Indian Ocean after departing from Sumatra.[217] Semudera and its neighbor (on Sumatra) were important for its location to the fleet rather than for its wealth or products.[117] Ma Huan stated that Semudera was the main route to the Western Ocean.[218] He characterized it as the most important port of assembly for the Western Ocean.[64] Northern Sumatra was an important region for the fleet's anchorage and assembly before the long journey through the Indian Ocean to Ceylon and southern India.[64] The journey from northern Sumatra to Ceylon involved sailing for about two to four weeks without laying sight on land.[213] The first part of Ceylon that would visible after departing from Sumatra was Namanakuli (or Parrot's Beak Mountain), the eastern-most mountain (6680 ft in elevation and 45 miles away from the coast).[217] Two or three days after sighting this geographical feature, the treasure fleet would adjust their course to sail south of Dondra Head at Ceylon.[217] The fleet would have been at sea for a considerable long time by then since departing from Sumatra, thus they would make a call at a port in Ceylon, usually at Beruwala and sometimes at Galle.[219] Even though the fleet would make a port call at Galle at times, it was clear that the fleet's preference laid at Beruwala as port-of-call.[45] Ma Huan characterized Beruwala as "the wharf of the country of Ceylon."[45] Ming China had cordial relations with Calicut, which was valuable as they tried to extend the tributary system to the states around the Indian Ocean.[157] Ma Huan described Calicut as the "great country of the Western Ocean".[27][64] He was very positive about the Calicut authorities' regulation of trade and attention to weights or measurements.[27] Fei Xin described Calicut as the "great harbor" of the Western Ocean countries.[119] Fei Xin wrote that the people of Mogadishu were bigoted and insincere (wangyin, both words can also mean "stupid").[220] This was the most-pejorative description of any foreign nation that they had visited during the ocean voyages.[220] It was further mentioned that they often drilled their soldiers and practiced archery.[220] However, Fei Xin characterized the people of Brava as pure and honest.[220] The return journey was set during the late summer and early autumn, because favorable monsoon winds would be present during this period.[221] Navigation Admiral Zheng He followed for the most parts established trade routes during his voyages rather than unknown territory.[145] During the treasure voyages, the crew acquired and collected a large amount of navigational data.[222] The astrological officer and his four astrologers specifically recorded the astronomical data.[223] The general mass of navigational data were processed into different kind of charts by a cartographic office.[222][223] The office included an astrological officer, four astrologers, and their clerks.[223] This provided the expeditionary commanders with the necessary navigational charts for their voyages.[222] Many copies of the expeditionary charts were housed in the Ministry of War.[222] Additional navigational data were probably also supplied by local maritime pilots, Arab records, Indian records, and earlier Chinese records.[223] The Mao Kun map is associated with the route of the voyages.[224] The Wubei Zhi includes four stellar diagrams after the Mao Kun map. These charts were derived from records of Zheng He's navigators. Mao Kun Map - stellar diagram 2 - P1100090.JPG Mao Kun Map - stellar diagram 3 - P1100092.JPG Mao Kun Map - stellar diagram 4 - P1100093.JPG Faith and ceremony The power of the goddess, having indeed been manifested in previous times, has been abundantly revealed in the present generation. In the midst of the rushing waters it happened that, when there was a hurricane, suddenly a divine lantern was seen shining at the masthead, and as soon as that miraculous light appeared the danger was appeased, so that even in the peril of capsizing one felt reassured and that there was no cause for fear. “” — Admiral Zheng He and his associates [120] The true faith of the crew of the treasure fleet centered around Tianfei, the "Heavenly Princess", who was the goddess of sailors and seafarers.[225] The Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions suggest that Zheng He's life was mostly defined by the treasure voyages.[226] Consequently, they also suggest that his devotion to Tianfei was the dominant faith that he adhered to.[226] The two inscriptions honored and commemorated the Goddess Tianfei.[227] Admiral Zheng He and his associates had established these inscriptions at the temples of Tianfei at Liujiagang on 14 March 1431 and Changle between 5 December 1431 and 3 January 1432.[228] These inscriptions make reference to the crew witnessing St. Elmo's fire during dangerous storms and interpreting it as a sign of divine protection by Tianfei.[229] The Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions are considered the epitaphs of the treasure voyages.[103] In Galle at Ceylon, Admiral Zheng He set up a trilingual inscription dated 15 February 1409.[44] The Galle Trilingual Inscription is in three languages: Chinese, Tamil, and Persian.[45] For protecting the treasure fleet during the voyages, the Chinese section praised the Buddha, the Tamil section praised a local god who was an incarnation of Vishnu, and the Persian section praised Allah.[45] The three sections each contained the same lists of offerings: 1000 pieces of gold, 5000 pieces of silver, 100 rolls of silk, 2500 catties of perfumed oil, and a variety of bronze ornaments.[45] Thus, the inscription paid respect to the three religions that were dominant in Ceylon.[225] The noted date could refer to when it was erected in Galle, which would indicate that it was put up during the homeward journey of the second voyage.[44] The inscription could also have been prepared beforehand in China and erected at Galle between 1410 to 1411 during the third voyage.[230] On 20 September 1414, Bengali envoys presented a tribute giraffe in the name of King Saif Al-Din Hamzah Shah of Bengal (r. 1410–1412) to the Yongle Emperor of Ming China.[231] The giraffe was presented as the qilin, but this association was met with a dismissive attitude from the Yongle Emperor who rejected the laudatory memorials of his officials.[232] |
About us|Jobs|Help|Disclaimer|Advertising services|Contact us|Sign in|Website map|Search|
GMT+8, 2015-9-11 21:01 , Processed in 0.145378 second(s), 16 queries .
